Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA), historically termed temporal arteritis, is a systemic immune-mediated vasculitis affecting medium- and large-sized arteries. Occurring almost exclusively in adults over 50 years of age, GCA presents…

Transient ischemic attack (TIA) and acute ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke represent a continuous spectrum of cerebrovascular disease resulting from compromised cerebral blood flow or vascular rupture. A TIA produces transient,…

Seizures are transient episodes of abnormal, excessive, or hypersynchronized electrical activity within the brain that manifest as temporary changes in motor control, sensory perception, behavior, awareness, or autonomic function. A…

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a chronic, progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized primarily by impaired movement, alongside significant cognitive, psychiatric, autonomic, sleep, and sensory dysfunction. Pathologically, PD is defined by the progressive…

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic immune-mediated demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) affecting the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. Inflammatory destruction of myelin sheaths impairs impulse…

Bacterial meningitis is a neurological emergency characterized by acute infection and purulent inflammation of the leptomeninges and subarachnoid cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Rapid clinical deterioration, permanent neurodevelopmental sequelae, septic shock, and…

Headache is one of the most common complaints encountered in clinical practice. While most presentations represent benign primary headache disorders, a critical subset stems from life-threatening secondary etiologies ranging from…

Bell’s palsy is the leading cause of sudden unilateral facial paralysis. Because of its abrupt onset, patients often fear they are experiencing an acute ischemic stroke. Classified as a peripheral…

The twelve pairs of cranial nerves are critical structures of the peripheral nervous system, mediating sensory, motor, and parasympathetic control across the head, neck, and visceral organs. Evaluating cranial nerve…